The Lebanon Civil War (1975–1990): A Nation Torn by Sectarian Strife and Foreign Interventions

The Lebanon Civil War, which raged from 1975 to 1990, was one of the most complex and devastating conflicts in modern Middle Eastern history. It lasted fifteen years and left an indelible mark on the country's political, social, and economic fabric. The war transformed Lebanon from a symbol of coexistence and prosperity into a fragmented battleground torn by sectarian violence, foreign interventions, and warring militias. Although a ceasefire eventually ended the hostilities, the consequences of the conflict still reverberate in Lebanon’s fractured political system and lingering societal divisions.

Lebanon before the war was known for its cosmopolitan culture, thriving tourism, and a booming banking sector that made Beirut a regional hub. Yet beneath the surface, tensions brewed. Lebanon’s population is diverse, made up of numerous religious sects including Maronite Christians, Sunni Muslims, Shia Muslims, Druze, and others. The country’s power-sharing system, designed during the French mandate, allocated political offices along sectarian lines, with the presidency reserved for a Maronite Christian, the prime minister’s office for a Sunni Muslim, and the parliamentary speaker role for a Shia Muslim. While intended to promote balance, this structure became increasingly outdated and rigid as demographics shifted over time.

The seeds of war were planted in the 1960s and early 1970s. Disputes over political representation, economic inequality, and the growing influence of external actors fueled resentment. A major flashpoint was the influx of Palestinian refugees and militants following the Arab-Israeli conflicts, especially after the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1970 expulsion of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from Jordan. The PLO established bases in southern Lebanon and increasingly engaged in cross-border attacks against Israel, provoking Israeli reprisals and drawing Lebanon into the broader Arab-Israeli conflict. This further polarized Lebanese society, with some factions supporting the Palestinian cause and others opposing it.

The war formally began on April 13, 1975, when gunmen ambushed a bus in the Beirut suburb of Ain El Remmaneh, killing dozens of Palestinians. This act was preceded by the killing of four Christian Phalangists near a church, reportedly by Palestinian militants. The cycle of retaliatory violence escalated quickly. The conflict soon took on a sectarian character, with Christian militias such as the Phalange and Lebanese Forces clashing with leftist-Muslim coalitions, including the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) and various Palestinian groups.

What made the Lebanon Civil War especially complicated was the involvement of multiple foreign powers. Syria entered the conflict in 1976 under the pretext of restoring order, though it had its own geopolitical interests in controlling Lebanon. The Israeli invasion in 1982, officially launched to expel the PLO, further escalated the war. The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) advanced as far as Beirut, leading to the controversial siege of the capital. The assassination of newly elected president Bashir Gemayel, a key Christian leader and ally of Israel, led to the massacre at the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps, committed by Christian militias while Israeli forces looked on. This atrocity drew international condemnation and highlighted the brutal, often indiscriminate nature of the violence.

The war also saw the rise of Hezbollah, a Shia militant group backed by Iran and opposed to both Israeli occupation and Western influence. Hezbollah emerged in the early 1980s, gaining support among the Shia population in southern Lebanon, who had long felt marginalized. The group combined armed resistance with social services, gradually becoming a powerful political and military force. Meanwhile, Amal, another Shia militia, often clashed with Hezbollah and other factions, adding to the chaotic mosaic of conflict.

At its height, Lebanon was divided into sectarian cantons controlled by militias. Beirut itself was split into East and West, with green lines demarcating Christian and Muslim neighborhoods. Kidnappings, bombings, and sniper attacks became part of daily life. Entire neighborhoods were depopulated and destroyed. The central government, weak and fragmented, lost control over large parts of the country.

International peacekeeping efforts were attempted, including the deployment of a multinational force in 1982, but these proved largely ineffective. The 1983 bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut, which killed 241 American servicemen, marked a turning point. The attack, attributed to Hezbollah, led to the withdrawal of Western forces and highlighted the growing risks of international involvement.

Over the years, the conflict evolved from a civil war into a regional proxy war, with Syria, Israel, Iran, and Western powers supporting different factions. Each player pursued its own strategic interests, often at the expense of Lebanese sovereignty. Syria, in particular, entrenched its influence by stationing troops throughout much of Lebanon, ostensibly to stabilize the situation but effectively controlling political outcomes.

The Taif Agreement, brokered in Saudi Arabia in 1989, finally paved the way for an end to the war. The agreement restructured the political system, giving Muslims greater representation while maintaining the sectarian power-sharing formula. It also called for the disarmament of militias, though Hezbollah was allowed to retain its weapons under the guise of resistance against Israeli occupation. By 1990, most major combat had ceased, and the Lebanese state began the arduous process of reconstruction. President Elias Hrawi, backed by Syria, oversaw the reintegration of the army and centralization of authority.

However, the scars of the war run deep. An estimated 150,000 people were killed, with many more wounded or permanently displaced. Thousands remain missing. Families were divided, communities destroyed, and infrastructure left in ruins. The war also left a legacy of impunity; most warlords who led militias were later integrated into politics, and few have ever faced justice for their actions. Lebanon’s post-war order has been criticized as one of political stagnation, economic mismanagement, and continued sectarianism. The amnesty law passed in 1991 ensured that those responsible for atrocities would not be held accountable, contributing to a culture of unhealed trauma.

The civil war's legacy continues to shape Lebanon’s modern challenges. Economic crises, political deadlock, and recurrent security threats reflect the unresolved tensions of the past. The sectarian system remains intact, and while peace has largely held, it is often described as “negative peace” — the absence of open warfare rather than the presence of reconciliation. Recent years have seen mass protests demanding a new, non-sectarian political order, as well as severe economic collapse and the 2020 Beirut port explosion, which underscored the fragility of the state.

The Lebanon Civil War stands as a tragic reminder of how sectarianism, foreign intervention, and the failure to adapt politically can tear a nation apart. Its complex web of alliances and enmities makes it difficult to define a single cause or assign simple blame. But its outcome has been clear: a long period of devastation from which the Lebanese people continue to struggle to recover. While the guns have fallen silent, the true peace Lebanon needs — built on justice, accountability, and unity — remains elusive.