The Nanking Massacre of 1937: Japan’s Atrocities in China’s Wartime Capital

In December 1937, the Chinese capital of Nanking (now Nanjing) fell to the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. What followed was a six-week-long rampage of killing, rape, looting, and destruction that would later be known as the Nanking Massacre, or the Rape of Nanking. It remains one of the most horrifying war atrocities of the 20th century. The systematic nature of the violence, its ferocity, and the involvement of regular army units distinguish this massacre as a calculated military crime, not a spontaneous breakdown of discipline.

Political importance of Nanking
In 1937, Nanking was not only a populous city but also the capital of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Its symbolic importance was immense—losing it to Japanese forces was both a military and psychological blow to the Chinese resistance.

The fall of Shanghai and the road to Nanking
After months of brutal urban combat in Shanghai, Japanese forces turned their sights inland. Despite Chinese attempts at delaying action, the Japanese 10th Army advanced with speed and aggression. By early December, Chinese forces were retreating in disarray. The capital was essentially defenseless by the time the Japanese arrived.

Japanese command and premeditated cruelty
General Iwane Matsui commanded the Central China Area Army, and though he later claimed he was unaware of the brutality, evidence suggests otherwise. Field commanders like Lieutenant General Hisao Tani were given tacit or explicit approval to terrorize the population as a way to break resistance and assert dominance.

Orders to ‘cleanse’ the city
Troops entered Nanking on December 13, 1937. Though some residents had fled, over 200,000 civilians remained. Many Chinese soldiers had removed their uniforms and attempted to blend in, which led to widespread “mop-up” operations—essentially open license to kill any military-aged man.

Systematic executions
Tens of thousands of men were taken in mass arrests. With little evidence of combat affiliation, they were marched to the outskirts of the city, tied together in rows, and shot, beheaded, or burned alive. Some groups were used for bayonet practice or forced to dig their own graves.

Sexual violence and the Rape of Nanking
One of the darkest features of the massacre was the widespread sexual violence. Conservative estimates suggest over 20,000 women were raped—some as young as 7, others elderly. Many were mutilated or killed afterward to prevent their testimony. Japanese soldiers often raped entire families, committing their crimes in broad daylight or in front of other troops.

Destruction of cultural and civilian infrastructure
In addition to human atrocities, homes were looted, cultural relics destroyed, and entire neighborhoods razed. Hospitals, schools, and safe zones were not spared. Livestock was killed, food stores looted, and entire city blocks set aflame.

Regular soldiers, not rogue elements
One critical aspect of the Nanking Massacre is that the atrocities were not committed by irregular troops or rogue gangs. These were trained soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army, acting under the command structure. This systematic, uniform brutality reveals that the massacre was not an aberration, but a deliberate policy of terror.

Command responsibility
Though General Matsui and other senior officers later faced tribunals, many key commanders were never held accountable. Prince Asaka, a member of the imperial family and acting commander during the massacre, was granted immunity due to his royal status.

The Nanking Safety Zone
A group of Western expatriates—including businessmen, missionaries, and doctors—organized a 3.4-square-mile Safety Zone in the western part of the city. Headed by German businessman John Rabe, ironically a Nazi Party member, the zone sheltered over 200,000 civilians and prevented even more extensive bloodshed.

Eyewitness accounts
These foreign residents documented atrocities in diaries, letters, and film. Their records formed the backbone of later investigations and trials. John Magee, an American missionary, filmed the wounded and dying, while doctors like Robert Wilson provided firsthand medical documentation of injuries consistent with mass rape and torture.

The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal
After Japan’s surrender in 1945, several high-ranking officers were tried at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. General Matsui and Lieutenant General Tani were convicted and executed. However, many perpetrators were never prosecuted, and the Japanese imperial family remained untouched.

Denial and historical revisionism
In Japan, the massacre remains a politically sensitive topic. While some Japanese historians acknowledge the atrocities, others deny or downplay the scale, claiming the numbers were inflated or fabricated by Chinese propaganda. This denial continues to strain Sino-Japanese relations to this day.

Nanjing’s memory and the museum
The Chinese government established the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall in 1985 at the site of one mass grave. Every year on December 13, ceremonies are held to remember the victims. Survivors have given harrowing testimonies to keep the memory alive and educate younger generations.

Estimates and challenges
The most commonly cited figure is 300,000, as memorialized by Chinese sources. Western observers like the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone estimated a lower—but still staggering—number between 150,000 to 200,000. Japanese revisionists suggest fewer than 40,000 deaths. The lack of full records and intentional destruction of evidence by retreating Japanese units makes absolute accuracy difficult, but the scale of the massacre is beyond dispute.

Historical reckoning
The Nanking Massacre is not just a horrific chapter in Chinese history; it is a global warning about the consequences of militarism, impunity, and dehumanization during wartime. The mass killing of civilians, systematic rape, and cultural annihilation in Nanking are reminders of how international norms can collapse under nationalist and militarist ideologies.

Implications for war ethics
The massacre led to deeper discussions about command responsibility, civilian protection during wartime, and post-war justice. It also became a case study in how propaganda, racial superiority doctrines, and total war strategies can lead to crimes against humanity on an industrial scale.

The importance of remembrance
Today, remembering Nanking is essential not just for China, but for the world. In an era where war crimes continue to be committed, from Syria to Ukraine, the lessons of Nanking are both historical and contemporary. Truth-telling, documentation, and education remain the bulwark against future atrocities.